Mostafa Labib ABDELGHANY,
Doctor of Islamic Philosophy,
professor, academic in
Cairo university, Egypt
THE PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT IN MODERN EGYPT
Sincere greetings to you, professors and students, from Egypt: the ancient state that witnessed the dawn of conscience and the dawn of wisdom, the sponser of great civilizations all over the history of mankind, the ancient Egyptian, the medieval Coptic-Muslim and the modern civilization.
Now, I’ill try to throw lights upon the modern Egyptian Philosophical thought, during the last two centuries.
To understand the present day philosophy in Egypt, we have to go back to the end of the nineteenth century. Up to that time the higher education could only by obtained in Al-Azhar, the religious university founded a thousand years ago, for keeping the medieval traditional studies till 1960, the time of it’s recent development to be also a comprehensive university: for teaching traditional religious and modern sciences as well. The study of philosophy was before prohibited as antagonistic to religion, even logic was condemned as a mean to atheism. A famous conservative fatwa ran like this, Mantamantak fakad tazandak, «He who studies logic is an atheist»
Philosophy came to be known again and re-acknowledged in two ways, the affiliation of western ideas to the East, and the rise of some reformers in the heart of Al-Azhar (especially, H. Al Attar, and H. Al Jabarti). After nearly sixty years, due to Gamal el-Din al-Afgani that Al-Azhar and all the Near East have awakened. He wrote a short treatise defending Islam, or rather religious belief, called «Answer to Naturalists» (Al Radd’ala Aldahreyeen). In this book, he attacked fiercely, from his point of view, Darwinism and all the philosophies prevailing in the second half of the 19th century.
His disciple, Muhammd Abdu, who came to be Mufti of Egypt, and that I realy consider him the pioneer of modern Egyptian thought, tried to shake of the yoke of traditionalistic views. He taught logic, and when he was appointed a teacher of history at Dar-Al-ulum high school he chose to teach the philosophy of history instead, through Mukadimmat Ibn Khaldun. He wrote a creative exegesis of the Koran, a treatise on the kalam, called «Resalat Al-Tawheed», and many influential articles. To teach logic was really a very bold step. He published an ancient manuscript written in the 12th century on logic, which can be considered one of the best handbooks summarizing formal logic «Al Bassa’ir al Nassiriah». Muhammad Abdu’s attitude was the first a attempt to abandon traditionalism and release the mind and the will from any alleged restrictions. Abdu was influenced by Herbert Spencer, and there were matual letters between him and tolostoy.
Among the main contributions of M.Abdu I can refer to his bold situation concerning libration of the muslim woman. No doubt that he who inspired his friend kasim Amine to write his two influential books «Libration of the woman» and «The Neo-Woman». Abdu sought eagerly to found in Egypt a modern university and an Academy of Arabic Language.
He asserted the civil characteristic of the state, and stated frankly that Islam doesn’t know the religious state. The prophet says: «You know best your secular affairs» (Antum a’alam bi shuo’n donyakum». His deep conviction was that there is no contradiction at all between Islam and Nationalism. The individual Muslim in any country has to do his best for his country at first, he respond as such to the divine will, so as there are in fact gradual dimensions of loyality: Loyality to the family, to the Nabourhood, to the relatives, to the whole citizens of the country, and finally to the human kind else where, as we are all brothers in front of Allah.
M.Abdu died in 1905, leaving a group of famous disciples to carry his massage for reforming the education, the politics, the economy and the unsuitable traditional views.
In the year 1908, a secular university had been established in Egypt by the wealthy leaders, and was transformed in the year 1925 into governmental university. From the beginning professors from Europe were chosen to teach in Cairo, beside the Egyptian professors. An Italian Carlo Alfonso Nallino gave lectures on the Arabic Literature and the history of the Arabic Sciences, especially Astronomy. An another Italian Santillana gave intensive lectures on Greek and Islamic Philosophy, A Spaniard, Comte de Glarzza, gave lectures on general and modern European Philosophy. All these lectures were delivered and published in Arabic. Some of the graduates were sent to Europe to complete their studies. After their return they found Egypt in a political revolution trying to regain its freedom. Two of those missionaries were very influential, Mustafa Abd el-Razik, and Taha Hussein.
Mutafa Abdel-Razikm who had studies in Al-Azhar, was the disciple of Muhammad Abdu, and followed his method and spirit. He was interested in logic, which he had not only studied under Muhammad Abdu, but later under Goblot in France. When he was nominated in 1927 to the professorship of Islamic Philosophy in Cairo University, he began to teach formal logic and read with his students texts from Avicenna and other Philosophers in order to reveal the real essence of Islamic Philosophy on which we can make a new one, truly our own. He published in 1944 lectures on the History of philosophy in Islam, which he called «Tamheed» an Introduction, and in which he claimed a new theory against the well-known one; that philosophy came to the Arabs from the Greeks, and that the Arabs being a Semite nation, had no philosophy. His theory lies in the antithesis between the jurisprudence method (usul Al Fikh) and the logical method of Aristotle adopted by the Muslim philosophers. The method of jurisprudence in Islam, as fully organized by the Hanifites, the Shaf’ites and the Melikites, passes in five steps; the Koran, the tradition, the consensus, the analogy and the common good. This method of thinking is quite original and different from Aristotelian Logic. The principles of certainty lie in the saying of Allah as stated in the Koran. Truth is the conformity of action to these statements, or the statements of the prophet in his tradition, or the accord of the community at some time. In face of new judgments having no origin in the Koran, tradition, or consensus, the Fakih (religious legistator) makes an analogy based on those principles. If he finds himself in face of an unprecedented case, he refers to reason, and judges what is rationally good, or what is best for the common good of the community. The Fakihs hade developed very elaborate rules on how to come to a good judgment and on the nature of truth. In brief, the real originality of Islamic Philosophy should be sought in this field. As a matter of fact the Fakihs had never ceased to condemn Aristotalian logic, and some of them wrote treatises showing the incoherence and insufficiency of that logic. One of Abdel-Razik’s disciples published two ancient manuscripts against the «Greek Logic». M.Abdel-Razik, with the collaboration of Michel, Bernard, translated to French, with an excellent introduction, «Rissalat al Tawhid» of M.Abdu. M. Abde-el-Razik become the head of an eminent school of Islamic Philosophy in Egypt, and had a chief role in the reform of Al-Azhar University.
The revival of Islamic philosophy is headed later by a scholar whose name is Ibrahim Madkour. He studied in Paris, and had written two books in the French language: one on the organon of Aristole in Arabic Philosophy, the other on al-Farabi. He taught in Cairo University from 1934. Since 1949 he has been president of the committee to publish al shifa, the major work of Avicenna on philosophy, by referring to eleven different manuscripts. Many Egyptian professors had published philosophical manuscripts, especially that of Al-kindi, al-Farabi, Averrose (Ibn Rushd), and some ancient Arabic translations, especially that of Aristotle.
Side by side to these Islamic studies, is the adoption of recent western philosophy in Egypt. Western philosophy began to be known after the first world war by amateurs writing articles in magazines or daily papers. Four amateur writers can be cited: Al-Akhad, Ali Adham, Salama mussa and Ismail Mazhar, (by «amateurs» we mean that they did not teach in the university.)
Al-Akad was mainly an essayist, and wrote influential books. He was influenced by Kant, Nietche and Schopenhauer, and introduced their philosophies to the Egyptian circles.
The most important of his books is that entitled «ALLAH», published in 1947. He treated the subject historically up to recent times, describing and discussing the evolution of the different doctrines concerning God. His Work is a comprehensive study including the Islamic different theories on the problem of deity. In the conclusion the author expounded the view that God is known by a direct world consciousness found in man. Furthermore, his writings on Islamic heroes reveal a new philosophy of history . He wrote also a masterpiece on «The Kornic philosophy».
Salama Mussa is a Darwinian and believes very much in the scientific Method. He is regarded as a free thinker. His chief influence is that he has popularized philosophy, writing it in a plain style accessible to the public.
Ismail Mazhar translated the «Origing of Species» in 927, and published a book on the Epicureans and their theory of pleasure and pain.
Ali Adham is an essayist, and is interested in Hegel. He was influenced by Al-Akad. It is due to these four writers that recent philosophy is known to the public in Egypt.
Since 1929, year after year fresh students graduated, from the Department of Philosophy, at Cairo University. Many have come to be well acquainted with philosophy and its terminology. The study of philosophy was made a part of the curriculum in secondary schools, where students are supposed to study psychology, Logic, and history of philosophy. Egyptian professors began to write text books for the use of the students.
The translation of western books are issued year after year. Now, there is a considerable public to whom one can write on philosophy. Of Course, philosophy could not have been flourished without a public, just as an actor can never play without an audience.
The translation movement began nearly eighty-five years ago when Litfi al-Sayyid translated Aristotle’s Physics, Generation and corruption, Ethics and Politics. His disciple Taha Hussein, although he had been a student in al-Azhar, moved towards the Western Culture, by which he completed his studies and obtained his thesis in France on «The Social Philosophy of Ibn Khaldun». He believes that Islamic civilization was the outcome of the embodiment of Greek culture. He started to translate Greek Literature. He is also an essayist and one of the most influential thinkers in Egypt. His doctrine may be called liberalism in religion, literature and philosophy. He himself gave up traditionalism in his way of life, being of the first Azharites to dress as an European. In 1927, he was brought before the courts because of his liberal ideas concerning the Koran. He said at that time that the stories of Ibrahim and Ismail, cited in the Koran, were problematic, lacking the historical scientific certainty. The court ordered that his book on the pre-Islamic poetry «Fi AL-Shi’r Al-Jahili» should be taken from the book shelves and destroyed. In education he is responsible for the recent great expansion of the schools. Having an elegant style, and excellent power of speech he proclaimed that education is one of the rights of people and should be shared by every one, as is air and water. He was for some years minister of Education, and ordered that primary and secondary education should be gratis.
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Since the second half of twentieth century philosophy became in the hands of university professors, every one trying to expand the doctrine he has adopted. Zaki Naguib is a logical positivist, and published a book against metaphysies. He was deeply interested in the Analytic & Pragmatic Philosophies. He taught and wrote on their main issues. Z.Naguib was really the most distinguised essayist. During his last three decades he re-considered and revived the Arabic thought by compromising between the traditional and modern ideas and values in a new synthesis called «AL-Asala wa Al-Musara» (originality and modernism). But the center of his philosophy remained the idea of «Progress».
Our preofessor Osman Amine, the disciple of Mustafa Abdel-Razek, Studied also in Paris, He thaught the philosophy through a sympathetic method and gave public lectures outside the university. He published some manuscripts written by Al-Farabi and Averroes. He translated into Arabic most of the chief works of Descartes, and some philosophical texts of Kant, Heidger, and Jaspers. He did his best to formulate a unique philosophy that he called «Al-Juwwaneya» (the Inwardness). This moral philosophy pays attention to the high importance of the inner Intentions, to the conscience and state the priority of the substance to the appearance, so as the substantial existence of man in only the true and the most permanent than the superfecious.
Abdel-Rahman Badawi is a leading philosopher, following Martin Heidger. He published many Arabic manuscripts and translated a considerable part of the orientalists contribution, especially the german, in Islamic philosophy and Mysticism. He tried to reveal the human trends in the Islamic heritage.
Zakariya Ibrahim was an Egyptian Philosopher. His main role lies in popularizing the essential philosophical problems, and lies also in his very elegant style.
Fouad Zakariya advocated strongly the scientific attitudes in philosophy, and criticized boldly the recent Islamized political movements, in victory to the Illumination and the freedom of thought.
So, a new Islamic Philosophy is now in the making. It is the synthesis of the past thought, revived by the edition of ancient manuscript, and the present, infiltrated by the translation of the western thought, in addition to our own vital experiences. The impetus is «progressivism», through reason that guides our free-will.